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PAUL, THE APOSTLE
Next to Jesus, Paul may be the most influential person in the history of the Christian faith. His dramatic conversion from a zealous enemy of Christians to a tireless advocate of the gospel ranks as one of the most dramatic stories in Scripture. His years of ministry took him to countless towns and cities throughout Asia Minor and Europe. He also wrote thirteen letters that are included in the New Testament.
FAMILY AND CULTURAL BACKGROUND
Paul was born around AD 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Philippians 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3). At that time, Tarsus was a center of commerce and learning that embraced Greek culture and Roman politics. The city was a source of pride for him (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Samuel 11:15; Acts 13:21), but 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He used his Roman name Paul throughout his letters.With the encouragement of devout parents, Paul studied the law and prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Galatians 1:14; Philippians 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. It was a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.Many Jews migrated to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 BC to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul as he traveled throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but 23:16 mentions only a nephew, who warned Paul about a plot against his life.Paul was a tentmaker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have learned it as a way of making a living, as many rabbis did in his day. The artisans of Tarsus were well known for their goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. By knowing how to weave this cloth and fashion it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks, Paul gained a measure of economic independence during his ministry (18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Corinthians 11:9; 1 Thessalonians 2:9; 2 Thessalonians 3:8).
EDUCATION
Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified that he had grown up in Jerusalem and had studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul arrived in Jerusalem, but it is likely that he began his formal rabbinical studies sometime between the ages of 13 and 20. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, an influential Pharisee and teacher. (Hillel’s teachings appear in Talmudic writings to this day.) The same Gamaliel persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). With little doubt we can conclude that while studying under Gamaliel, Paul’s understanding of his faith progressed far beyond that of his peers. He became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Galatians 1:14). Perhaps Paul also then began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.
SAUL THE PERSECUTOR
Shortly after the world-changing events of Jesus’ resurrection and Pentecost, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9) acted to quash the new church. In particular, they battled the wisdom and spirit (6:10) of Stephen (6:5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (6:11-15) and, after his eloquent defense (7:1-53), dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was an active participant. The witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (Acts 7:58, NIV).Stephen’s death initiated the events that would result in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (Acts 9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Galatians 1:13) by imprisoning Christian men and women (Acts 22:4) in many cities.
CONVERSION AND CALLING
Paul obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem, addressed to the synagogues in Damascus, authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). As he neared the outskirts of Damascus, a light from heaven brighter than the midday sun shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus, who told him that he would be Christ’s chosen instrument for bringing the Good News to the Gentiles (26:14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community helped him through the unsettling event of his conversion (9:10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul began to publicly proclaim the risen Christ, and the Jews threatened Paul with death (9:20-22). He was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (9:23-25).Paul’s conversion was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23). Paul himself refers to it many times in his own writings (1 Corinthians 9:1; 15:8; Galatians 1:15-16; Ephesians 3:3; Philippians 3:12). The transformation of this zealous persecutor of Jesus Christ into the chief advocate of the gospel (1 Corinthians 3:10; 1 Timothy 1:13) would profoundly change the course of world history.
PREPARATION FOR MINISTRY
After his escape, Paul began a period of preparation that lasted about thirteen years. During this time, Paul lived in the desert of Arabia for three years. He took this opportunity to pray and undoubtedly to reflect on Stephen’s defense of the gospel, his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in light of the law he had studied so passionately for years. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for fifteen days (Galatians 1:17-18).At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of Paul because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but Barnabas spoke fervently on his behalf and won over the believers (9:27-28). While there, Paul may have heard an oral telling of the gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Corinthians 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Corinthians 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Corinthians 10:1; Philippians 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when the Jews marked him for death again, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Galatians 1:21).The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for ten years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (9:27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings he mentions in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.In a way, the church in Antioch had been a product of Paul’s pre-conversion persecution of the church in Jerusalem. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only presented the gospel to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (11:20), and many became believers (11:21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Romans 11:13), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so far-reaching that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch sent relief to the believers in Judea and entrusted Barnabas and Paul with the delivery of the gift (11:30). When their mission was complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Colossians 4:10).Until this time, the spread of the gospel had been local and inward-looking. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, and highways (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch, the Holy Spirit began a determined effort to evangelize the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church appointed Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of the Antioch assembly, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul sailed for Cyprus (Acts 13:4).
TRAVELING WITH BARNABAS
Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of Cyprus to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There, the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (13:7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus, a jealous associate of Sergius, tried to interfere but was stricken with temporary blindness at Paul’s command (13:8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the authority given to apostles (2 Corinthians 12:12). From then on, Luke uses the name Paul exclusively in the record of Acts (Acts 13:9). Luke declares that “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (13:13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (13:13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Colossians 4:10; 2 Timothy 4:11).Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia in the southern portion of Galatia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, disease-infested region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the higher elevation of the tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of treacherous rivers and bandits (2 Corinthians 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Galatians 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).Paul and Barnabas next traveled to the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a rich description of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (13:16-41). He was invited to speak at the synagogue the next week (13:42), and nearly the whole city gathered to hear the word of God (13:44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (13:45), causing Paul and Barnabas to turn their attention to the Gentiles (13:46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (13:48-51).Their success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium, but so was the Jews’ resistance (Acts 14:1). To avoid stoning, the apostles fled to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (14:5-6). Here Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (14:8-10). The pagan citizens of the town worshiped Paul and Barnabas as the reincarnation of Zeus and Hermes (14:11-13). Paul and Barnabas argued passionately against their desire to make a sacrifice to them, and barely succeeded (14:14-18).In Lystra, Paul nearly lost his life when the Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Corinthians 4:17; 1 Timothy 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Timothy 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Romans 16:21; 1 Thessalonians 3:2). The next day, however, Barnabas and Paul were able to journey to Derbe (Acts 14:20).After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch in Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (14:25-27).
THE COUNCIL OF JERUSALEM
The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, continued to undermine the gospel among the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Galatians 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace preached by Paul.The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (AD 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (15:3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (15:5).After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Galatians 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance with the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, RSV), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, RSV). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (Acts 15:30-35).This victory, however, was far from complete. Later, Paul had to confront Peter about his reluctance to embrace Gentile believers and his willingness to conform to the wishes of the Judaizers. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Galatians 2:12-13). Paul confronted Peter publicly and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (2:14). Paul won the battle (2:15-21), but the Judaizers would not relent and continued their hostility to Paul.
FURTHER TRAVEL
Always deeply concerned about the churches in his care, Paul proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul refused since Mark had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (15:22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia.Starting from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy. The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the apostles in Jerusalem that welcomed the new believers and provided them with guidelines (Acts 15:23-29).It is likely that Paul and Silas wanted to reach Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (16:7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in 16:10). Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (16:8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (16:11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed Paul’s message and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (16:16-24). The events of their night in jail made their warder a believer in God (16:25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (16:40). The next day Paul was released and was asked to leave the city (16:35-39).At Thessalonica, Paul’s next destination, the Jews roused a mob to hunt down the apostles and complained to the city authorities. Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city distinguished by citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). Unfortunately, the Thessalonian Jews had pursued Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The new believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (17:13-15).The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views in the Areopagus. Paul’s famous speech brimmed with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (17:28), sculpture (17:25, 29), architecture (verse 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” he observed in Athens (17:23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (17:32). Paul’s words intrigued the minds of many but influenced the wills of few. Resultingly, when he arrived in Corinth, he decided not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom. He wanted people to believe not because of the persuasiveness of human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Corinthians 2:1-5).In Corinth, Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker. This husband-and-wife team would become well known among the churches (18:26; Romans 16:3; 1 Corinthians 16:19; 2 Timothy 4:19). Paul stayed in Corinth about 18 months, from AD 50 to 51, raising up the church there (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (18:9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (18:12-17). Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for a while but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch and went from village to village in Galatia and Phrygia, strengthening the disciples. Eventually Paul arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).
LABOR IN THE GOSPEL
A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had visited Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Corinthians 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Even so, Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s brief ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the gospel.Paul began his work in Ephesus by correcting some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist who had not heard of Christ (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation began sowing discord. Paul took the new believers with him and continued his arguments at a nearby lecture hall where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued teaching for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (19:10).The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Corinthians 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (19:11-17), a public burning of sorcery texts (19:18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (19:31). Yet Paul continued to face hostility, especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Blaming Paul for the decline of their trade, they stirred up a local riot (19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Corinthians 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe in Corinth sent word to Paul that there were divisions in the church there (1 Corinthians 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth responded (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (AD 53) and sent it with Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Corinthians 2:12-13).After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas in Asia Minor, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Corinthians 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (7:8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (AD 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Romans 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Corinthians 13:1).A three-month winter stay in Corinth (AD 55-56) produced the letter to the Romans, a memorable document expounding the meaning of the gospel. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Romans 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Romans 15:25-26; 1 Corinthians 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Romans 15:23-24).
THE ARREST IN JERUSALEM
Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was well known, but he seems to have brushed off the threat (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from his enemies in Judea.The travelers, carrying the collected funds, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, and to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring AD 56, 20:6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (20:7-12) and then sailed by the islands of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (20:13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (20:17-38).Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (21:3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (21:4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; compare with 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be deterred by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (21:18-20), and they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his damaged reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ claims that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). 21:25 shows that the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles had no obligation to follow Mosaic law. They wanted Paul to merely affirm that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances. Paul himself had kept the Jewish feasts (20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also shaved his head according to Jewish custom after taking a vow (18:18). Thus the elders suggested that Paul participate in a purification ceremony to demonstrate that he continued to practice traditional customs. Paul agreed and took part in the ritual the next day. For seven days, all was quiet. But then Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of AD 57, found Paul and made public statements about his disregard for the laws of Moses (21:27-29). Their charges inflamed the public, and a violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been carried to his martyrdom.As they tried to kill Paul, Roman soldiers came to his rescue. Paul’s educational and cultural breadth proved to be just as helpful. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (Acts 21:37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (21:39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its mayhem, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There, the Romans prepared to flog him until Paul revealed that he was a freeborn Roman citizen. The Roman commander, knowing he could not flog a citizen, instead assembled the Sanhedrin to discover the cause of the trouble (22:25-30).This meeting of the Jewish judiciary quickly became bitterly divided. Paul brought up the subject of resurrection, which caused a clamor between the Pharisees and Sadducees (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (AD 56, 23:10-11).In the meantime, a faction of Jews conspired to murder Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of Paul’s nephew (23:16), the plot was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under the guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to Felix the governor (23:16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (24), his successor, Festus (23:25), and King Agrippa (25:23-26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again asserted his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).
VOYAGE AND STAY IN ROME
To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (AD 58, Acts 27:1-28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is remarkable for its detail and drama. Luke’s account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Ephesians 6:20). With the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), Paul led the 276 people on board to safety after the ship went aground (27:37). Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, the delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of AD 59, the soldiers and their prisoner arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome. Believers along the Appian Way welcomed Paul (Acts 28:13-16).Luke’s account of Paul’s life ends quietly, despite the fact that the apostle was waiting for his trial before the Emperor Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (28:17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Gnosticism. Paul attacks this spiritual threat in letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before the emperor, so Paul was probably released in AD 61.
FINAL YEARS AND MARTYRDOM
If we assume that Paul is the author of the pastoral letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus), we can plot the probable course of events of Paul’s final years. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” His arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only wrecked these plans but also cost him time that he wanted to spend elsewhere. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain, it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Corinthians 11:28) never went away. If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, AD 64.We do know that sometime after AD 61 Paul left Titus in Crete (Titus 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus. Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Timothy 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Timothy 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (AD 62-64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Titus 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, but with a somewhat stricter tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Titus 3:13), who still labored for the gospel more than ten years after first meeting Paul in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have spent the winter in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas as he had planned (2 Timothy 4:13). At some point the Romans likely arrested him again, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold stone cell while writing his second letter to Timothy (AD 66-67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (2 Timothy 4:13, 21). We can only speculate what charges had been brought against Paul; some have suggested that Paul and other Christians may have been suspected (falsely) of burning Rome. It was, however, now illegal to profess the Christian faith. The protection that had been afforded to Jews was withdrawn from this new alien religion.Paul felt the weight of this persecution. Many deserted him (2 Timothy 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who “loved the world” (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (4:11). Faithful believers in hiding in Rome also kept in contact (1:16; 4:19, 21). He pleaded with Timothy to come to him in Rome (4:11), and apparently Timothy did. Paul’s request that Timothy bring books and parchments (4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.The apostle Paul had two hearings before the Romans. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Timothy 4:16). There he pleaded not only his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Apparently, no verdict was rendered, and Paul was thus “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (4:17). Though Paul knew he would soon die, he was not afraid. He was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (4:8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (2 Timothy 4:22, RSV). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing, but it most probably resulted in a death sentence. We have no written record of Paul’s end, but he was likely executed before Nero’s own death in the summer of AD 68. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was beheaded on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome and buried nearby. His death released Paul “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Philippians 1:23, RSV).
